Girard, Jonah and Penal Substitution

Rene Girard, a French literary critic and theorist, proposed a theory that has come to be widely accepted in many circles, called 'mimetic desire'. Girard argues that people don't just imitate the actions of others, they also imitate their desires. In effect, we will want what other people want, whether or not we even need it. Our imitation of popular clothing styles, music and mannerisms all have a deeper component, the desire to have what someone else wants. To Girard, it's this one simple human trait that leads to the many varied and complex rituals and taboos within culture and religion.

Girard also applied his theory to Christianity. Specifically, he applied it to the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. How?

Girard argued that mimetic desire will inevitably produce competition and rivalry, which will lead to violence. Violence undermines community and decreases individual survival. Girard theorized that in an effort to overcome communal dissolution, the community would unite against a single enemy on which they could put the blame for 'social degradation'. This person was the scapegoat.

There are many examples of this in most human societies. The ritual becomes a permanent part of each community's social and religious structure.

Girard applied this theory to Judaism and then to the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Girard says that Jesus is the perfect scapegoat. Whereas most scapegoats are always guilty of something and at the center of controversy, Jesus was different in that he was completely innocent when he was killed as a scapegoat. His resurrection was his vindication.

Penal Substitution Atonement theology is a Christian explanation for sacrificial justice in that an innocent victim is chosen to be punished for the sin of another. The innocent one is sacrificed in the place of the guilty and the guilty one is released (their sins have been 'atoned').

So what about Jonah? Jonah has long been compared to Jesus Christ. He was called to preach to the sinful gentiles (Nineveh). He was willing to give his life to save the lives of others (when he was thrown into the sea). Jonah spent three days in the belly of the fish, Jesus spent three days in the belly of the earth, before both were given back to the land of the living where they continued ministry.

I would like to focus a bit on Jonah before he was thrown over board. Jonah had been commanded by God to go to the Ninevites the people who lived in the city of Nineveh) and preach a message of repentance. Unless they repented, God would destroy them. Jonah resisted because he disliked and feared the Ninevites. On the ship, Jonah was running from the will of God. He was going in the opposite direction.

During the voyage, however, a storm at sea nearly tore the ship apart. The crew, out of fear for their lives, cast lots (something similar to casting dice) to find the person whose sin might have brought the storm on them and it fell on Jonah. Jonah confessed to the crew that the storm was his fault. God was punishing him for disobedience and the only way they could save themselves was by throwing him overboard. As soon as they did, the storm ceased.

This part of the story is a perfect example of how scapegoating works. Jonah was chosen as the scapegoat to save the lives of the other crew. But he was also guilty! This is where we tie the story to penal substitution. Jonah represents Israel, who has gone astray from God's will. They don't bring the message of repentance to the gentiles because they loathe them. The ship is the world, the sailors are the other nations of the world, and the storm is God's judgement.

Israel, in this sense, is guilty, and the world, at the direction of God, has come together to blame them for misfortune. The Jews are the guilty scapegoat. The only way out is to come forward and change. The proof of change is doing the work of God by going and preaching the message of repentance to the nations. This is where Jesus comes in. Jesus takes the place of a guilty Israel, who continues to refuse God's mandate.

Jesus is punished by the nations, in Israel's place, and then resurrected (because he is actually innocent of the charges) by God, who vindicates him, and begins a ministry, through the Church, by calling humanity to repentance from sin and reconciliation to God.

Jesus calms the storm, deterring the judgement of God, by completing Israel's mandate to be a light to the nations and doing the will of God. He also takes the wrath of the world system upon himself, as an innocent scapegoat, taking the retribution and vengeance of the human justice system against those they deem 'sinners' worthy of degradation and death. And he conquers death itself to prove both his innocence and the fulfillment of God's will.

However, like Jonah's message. Jesus' message of repentance from sin and reconciliation to God tells of another future judgement. The complete destruction of the city for refusing the message and continuing to fight against God.

Genesis 1 Numerology

1         2         3         4         5         6         7

Genesis 1 is filled with mystical numerological meaning. The use of numbers distinguishes it from Genesis 2 and is another of the reasons I don't believe they share the same author. 

Genesis 1 begins with God, the one who acts as the primary force that moves the progression of the creation narrative along its two dimensional linear axis from beginning to end. God is the main character, the protagonist. No one else shares the spotlight. There is no antagonist. God is above all.

The number one, here, is a background number, always present, as the singular will that drives the creation onward to the resting point and, of course, it represents the presence and will of God. In fact, I should point out, this is very Jewish.

The narrative progresses linearly from beginning to end while at the same time displaying a greater consciousness that also moves along a second axis. This second axis moves from higher to lower (literally from top to bottom). Higher representing the holy (the heavens), or more God-like character, and lower representing the less Holy, less God-like character of flesh (the earth), displaying a clear duality, distinguishing between that which is above from that which is below.

This concept also provides a framework for which man can begin to view God. Not only is God the creator, but by pointing upwards, it implies something beyond human ability, where humans are not allowed to go, a divine realm. "Higher" implies a better or more perfect nature, a great character and a place of trusted and ultimate authority. Man is made 'in the image of God'. This has significance that, in my opinion, has nothing to do with physical appearance. The author of Genesis 2 will use this same idea to elaborate on the image of God.

While the earth stands for a firm physical foundation, the heavens high above offer a different kind of foundation for men. Heaven identifies that part of a man that makes him different from the other animals: morality, awe of the divine, reason and respect for order or law.

This concept of higher and lower introduces us to our first number, two. While the number two indicates a division it is not necessarily a bad thing because it is an intentional separation. In ancient Judaism, this would be one of the major functions of the priesthood, to maintain the separation between the holy and the common.

Other numbers appear not quite so prominent in the text.

Three divides the six days of creation, so that each set portrays some specific characteristic of the work of creation. Three therefore indicates a time of change, from one thing to another. It signifies that work is being done on something to change it.

For some reason six is representative of mankind or of the creation of mankind as he is created on the sixth day. We know this is significant because other Levantine cultures pointed out the same thing. In the Babylonian creation account mankind is created on the sixth (of seven) tablet. In Genesis, the number six marks an end to action and seven a beginning of rest (from action).

By far the most prominent numbers are two and seven. Two representing various kinds of separation (which is brought about only through work) and seven the end of a work well done. Seven represents a creation completed, that is, with nothing more to be done, and now those who were working can relax and enjoy it's produce.

Two (this and that)

• God and creation, God representing order and creation BEFORE God's will imposed on it represents chaos and darkness
• beginning to end
• higher to lower
• creation days divided into two sets of three: first three days for forming the three parts of creation, second three days for filling what had been formed with life
• Day 1: separate light from dark
• Day 2: separate upper waters from lower waters
• Day 3: separate earth from the lower waters
• Day 4: create sun for the day (greater light) and moon and stars (lesser lights) for night
• Day 5: create birds and fish
• Day 6: create land animals and man, man created as male and female
• Judgment outcomes: God saw that it was good! Good as opposed to ?, judgments are comparisons of God's work to His plan/will. It is either according to His will or it is not. Good indicates that it is going 

Seven (it is finished)

• There are seven visible bodies in the night sky that are not part of the 'fixed' background of stars. These seven bodies were used to calculate times and seasons
• Judgments ("God saw..." and "...it was good")
• Commands ("let... and it was so...) directed at the creation, this does not include "let us..." with respect to the creation of mankind because that command was directed to a divine council 
• seven [total] days of creation
• 'heaven' and 'earth' each appear twenty one times (7 x 3)
• 'God' appears thirty five times (7 x 5)
• Day seven is a day of rest BECAUSE the work of the six previous days were completed, the work is done and there is nothing more to do, all has been prepared.

The numbers in Genesis tie the physical creation to the divine and the good intentions of the divine. This contradicts the seemingly ubiquitous idea that the physical world is evil and bad (as seen in a number of Greek philosophical schools and later in gnostic theology). Genesis implies the exact opposite. The numbers in Genesis reveal a natural order that has been planned and is beneficial.

Because of the existing order in the natural world, mankind has found rhythms and patterns. For example, the lunar calendar, from which most of these numbers probably originate. One lunar month is approximately 28 days. The new moon was considered the beginning of a new lunar month and the full moon appeared roughly 14 days later (7 x 2). The quarters further divided the lunar month into four seven day periods (7 x 4 = 28).

The new moon and the full moon were each thought to last for 3 days (3 days of light, 3 days of darkness) symbolically implying a cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth.

One lunar year was approximately 12 lunar months with a 13th month added every couple of years to keep it in sync with the solar calendar (later given to twelve months).

Everywhere in nature there seems to be repeated numbers and shapes making divine order more apparent. And this order is permanently set, repeating in predictable cycles, like a law that is inescapable, influencing everything. This law was considered divine, not natural, and certainly not according to human imagination.

The numerology found in Genesis is not intended to be the main point of the text. It is intended, by the author, to show God's wisdom in ordering the universe as it is. These numbers are 'natural' in that they are part of the natural world in which we live. 

Genesis 1 Text

 

Genesis 1 is probably one of my favorite texts. It is so simple on the surface and yet so rich when you consider what is really being presented. The text has become a point of contention between the more conservative Christian organizations (those who espouse young earth creationism) and a secular world that has embraced science as its tutor. The book has even created dispute among Christians themselves. This text opens the Bible and many of our doctrines are rooted deep in it's interpretation. So it is probably pretty important to figure out how we should view it. Unfortunately I am not a scholar, but I do have some ideas (most are not my own) about this incredible first chapter of Genesis that should help us in identifying how to approach the book.

 

Some things (of many) that I will be discussing should grab your attention about this text:

• The prominence of numbers
• The importance of the spoken word
• Order!

I have taken the liberty of ammending this chapter of Genesis by including the first three verses of the second chapter. I have done this mainly because they belong there (with Chapter 1), ending the sequence of numbered days and summing up the flow of universal creation. This shouldn't be any surprise.
 

 

Genesis 1 (NKJV)

1 In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. 2 The earth was without form, and void; and darkness was on the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God was hovering over the face of the waters.

3 Then God said, “Let there be light”; and there was light. 4 And God saw the light, that it was good; and God divided the light from the darkness. 5 God called the light Day, and the darkness He called Night. So the evening and the morning were the first day.

6 Then God said, “Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and let it divide the waters from the waters.” 7 Thus God made the firmament, and divided the waters which were under the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament; and it was so. 8 And God called the firmament Heaven. So the evening and the morning were the second day.

9 Then God said, “Let the waters under the heavens be gathered together into one place, and let the dry land appear”; and it was so. 10 And God called the dry land Earth, and the gathering together of the waters He called Seas. And God saw that it was good.

11 Then God said, “Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb that yields seed, and the fruit tree that yields fruit according to its kind, whose seed is in itself, on the earth”; and it was so. 12 And the earth brought forth grass, the herb that yields seed according to its kind, and the tree that yields fruit, whose seed is in itself according to its kind. And God saw that it was good. 13 So the evening and the morning were the third day.

14 Then God said, “Let there be lights in the firmament of the heavens to divide the day from the night; and let them be for signs and seasons, and for days and years; 15 and let them be for lights in the firmament of the heavens to give light on the earth”; and it was so. 16 Then God made two great lights: the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night. He made the stars also. 17 God set them in the firmament of the heavens to give light on the earth, 18 and to rule over the day and over the night, and to divide the light from the darkness. And God saw that it was good. 19 So the evening and the morning were the fourth day.

20 Then God said, “Let the waters abound with an abundance of living creatures, and let birds fly above the earth across the face of the firmament of the heavens.” 21 So God created great sea creatures and every living thing that moves, with which the waters abounded, according to their kind, and every winged bird according to its kind. And God saw that it was good. 22 And God blessed them, saying, “Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the waters in the seas, and let birds multiply on the earth.” 23 So the evening and the morning were the fifth day.

24 Then God said, “Let the earth bring forth the living creature according to its kind: cattle and creeping thing and beast of the earth, each according to its kind”; and it was so. 25 And God made the beast of the earth according to its kind, cattle according to its kind, and everything that creeps on the earth according to its kind. And God saw that it was good.

26 Then God said, “Let Us make man in Our image, according to Our likeness; let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the air, and over the cattle, over all[b] the earth and over every creeping thing that creeps on the earth.” 27 So God created man in His own image; in the image of God He created him; male and female He created them. 28 Then God blessed them, and God said to them, “Be fruitful and multiply; fill the earth and subdue it; have dominion over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the air, and over every living thing that moves on the earth.”

29 And God said, “See, I have given you every herb that yields seed which is on the face of all the earth, and every tree whose fruit yields seed; to you it shall be for food. 30 Also, to every beast of the earth, to every bird of the air, and to everything that creeps on the earth, in which there is life, I have given every green herb for food”; and it was so. 31 Then God saw everything that He had made, and indeed it was very good. So the evening and the morning were the sixth day.

2 1Thus the heavens and the earth, and all the host of them, were finished. 2 And on the seventh day God ended His work which He had done, and He rested on the seventh day from all His work which He had done. 3 Then God blessed the seventh day and sanctified it, because in it He rested from all His work which God had created and made.

The Book of Daniel and the New Babylonian Judaism: Yet another controversy!

The Biblical book of Daniel is controversial for a number of reasons.

Firstly, while it claims to have been written during the Babylonian exile of Judah, critics claim it could not have been written until the intertestamental period. Conservatives and those who read the Bible as literal and infallible historical fact have waged war against those scholars and 'liberals' who do not hold this view and who challenge it's reliability as a historical document.

Next, the many controversies of Daniel's prophetic utterances, and how they should be interpreted, have wreaked havoc on interpreters, especially their interpretations of the 'end times'.

None of these reasons, however, will be covered here. Instead I want to talk about the challenge that the book of Daniel poses to those who accept it as part of the infallible 'Word of God' and who tend to lament the changes in modern Judaic (post-Babylonian) Judaic religious practice. Specifically those who believe the Temple should be rebuilt in Jerusalem, according to the Old Testament, and the Mosaic cult rituals reinstated.

So let me give a little background.

There is a unifying theme that runs throughout the Old Testament (as opposed to the New Testament Christian documents) scriptures: Exile and return! By exile, I mean, of course, someone being in a land they call their own then being kicked out because of bad behavior. This would apply to Adam's exile from the garden of Eden and Judah's exile from the land of Israel. The Maccabaean revolt even carries a similar theme (of Exile and return) that crescendos during the intertestamental period, following the victory over the Greeks, and finally fades as it washes ashore (seemingly dead) at the destruction of Jerusalem by Rome.

Why this focus on exile? Because it changes things.

Apparently, the Old Testament was not actually compiled (the different writings put together into one book) until the Babylonian exile, when the Israelites were forced to re-examine national identity outside of their homeland, away from Jerusalem and the Temple (which were both destroyed), which had, up to that point, been central elements in keeping the Mosaic Jewish law. Now that they were in a foreign land, unable to keep the law or the rituals as they pertain to the Temple and the Priesthood, the questions arose: Who are we now? Has the Lord completely forsaken us? Is reconciliation even possible?

It is easy to detect an element of dispair in these questions and I think that is exactly where the book of Daniel plays a major role. So what happened? Judaism changed! That's what happened. And God didn't even get mad about it.

This is where the Book of Daniel comes into sharper focus. Daniel (and his friends) is among the exiled elite from Judah who were brought to Babylon to serve the Great King. Daniel is typical of those Jews who were taken from the homeland so he is a kind of representative for the Jewish people in Babylon.

The first six chapters of the book aren't just historical documentation. They show a Jew living a separate life (from the pagans around him), according to Jewish ways, in a foreign land and PLEASING GOD! In return for a life of righteousness (apart from the land and the Temple) he prospers and enjoys divine protection against his enemies. He becomes, in essence, a Jewish hero, providing a model (of righteousness) for all other Jews who have been confined to Babylon and who live outside the land of Israel.

The story of Daniel transmits several elements of a righteous life away from the Jerusalem cult.

First, Daniel maintains the Mosaic dietary laws with respect to fruits and vegetables (which do not carry restrictions), staying away from meats, that have been sacrificed to idols or that are unclean for Jews (for example, pork). Remember, this was about keeping Jewish law (establishing a Jewish identity) NOT about creating a healthy diet that keeps off the weight and prevents heart disease (though it might do that).

Second, Daniel displays superior intelligence and skill because he is disciplined with his mind and body and diligent in his studies. Daniel does not take offense to being given a new Babylonian name, so that he is able to integrate into a Babylonian society without compromising his personal identity or religious beliefs.

Third, Daniel does not bow to idols, no matter what the consequences may be for him, he is devoted ONLY to the god of Israel. When he is confronted by the pagan authoritarian government, he is punished for his righteousness and God protects him, and he is rewarded.

Fourth, he is not apt to violent encounters with those in Babylon who wish to remove him from favor with the King. He does not rebel or participate in subversion of the Babylonian authority, except where it would force him to be unfaithful to his god. Even then he accepts the punishment of the state without fleeing or stirring up riots, and waits patiently for his God to save him.

Daniel is a man of outstanding character.

All of these actions (or non-actions) show God's preference for a man of right character, elevating this standard above the Temple cultus (preisthood and sacrifices) which had been the mainstay of Israelite theology and religious practice.

This is the Judaism that emerged during the Babylonian captivity and persisted in Jewish communities around the world (ex. Alexandria, Egypt). This type of righteousness, apart from the Temple, did not compel Jews to leave their established communities and return to Israel. Why should they? This also helped lay the groundwork for Second Temple Judaism, apocalypticism and the various communities that would rise to challenge the established authority in Israel.

Genesis 4 and Genesis 6: City of the Damned

I would like to take some time and focus almost exclusively on Cain. Earlier I had described him as the "seed" of the serpent. This is true in more than one respect. The serpent deceived the woman and coaxed her into breaking the command of God not to eat, bringing about her spiritual death (separation from the will of God). This was then passed to the man. In this sense the serpent becomes a murderer. Jesus seems to be taking the same position:

John 8:44 You are of the Devil as father, and the lusts of your father you will do. He was a murderer from the beginning, and did not abide in the truth because there is no truth in him. When he speaks a lie, he speaks of his own, for he is a liar and the father of it.

Likewise, Cain, deceived his brother, Abel, into thinking he still maintained a brotherly relationship with him, lured him into the field (by deception) and then ended his life (murder). Cain does what the serpent does, he is "like" the serpent with respect to behavior. And in like manner, God speaks the curse upon Cain, just as he had spoken the curse upon the serpent. What about the man and woman? Werent they cursed as well? The command carried the curse of death so when they disobeyed the law they brought the curse of the law upon themselves, God did not directly curse either of them as He had the serpent and later Cain. Apparently there was a situational difference between the actions of the man and woman and the actions of the serpent and of Cain. Opposing the command versus opposing God directly may be a difference to consider but they both result in the same thing, challenging the will of God (making them pretty much equal in that respect), so that does not seem like a very fruitful option. They should both result in a similar punishment if that is all we are considering. Perhaps the difference is something only a wise judge would consider, premeditation. By that I mean a strategy or scheme that is planned before-hand. The man was not trying to figure out how he could undermine the command of God, in fact his intent was to keep the command until he got caught in the situation created by the serpent (who deceived the woman). The man made a bad decision in order to preserve the relationship with his wife, the "flesh of his flesh and bone of his bone". The serpent on the other hand deceived the woman with the intent of challenging and undermining the will of God from the beginning, in order to obtain the authority of the man for himself (maybe?) by placing the man under his authority. Similarly, Cain, upon losing the first-born blessing to his brother (which is presented as the absolute will of God) sought a way to undo it, to challenge the will of God and obtain the blessing for himself. This follows along nicely with the Mosaic Law which allows sacrifices for unintentional sin but for intentional sin there is no sacrifice that can restore a person to a right place with God unless there is first a repentance and punishment or restitution.

The curse of God upon Cain removed any inheritance he still had in the land (though he did not receive the first-born double portion he did still qualify for the single portion inheritance). He is now homeless, driven out as a wanderer. Cain declares he will be hidden from the face of the ground (having no place in the earth) and hidden from the face of God (having no place in his fathers house). Cain is left with nothing because he disqualified himself by his actions. To protect Cain from being killed by other people as a wandering criminal, God gives Cain a mark that indicates to others that he has divine protection. This sounds, to me, a lot like a tattoo or some kind of magic amulet worn to warn others against doing him harm. Such protective marks or amulets were common among many different cultures all over the world and even enjoy status among many people to this very day. This is only a guess however, I have no idea what the mark actually was, the text does not say but what it represents, divine protection, is clear. At any rate, Cain now leaves the land of God and gets himself a wife. Where did she come from if Adam and Eve were the first people and Cain and Abel were the only two children they had? I dont know but apparently there were other people, whatever that means I cant say. Perhaps that is the point, perhaps not knowing where she came from is as appalling as having been cursed by God. To an ancient audience familial inheritance was protected by marrying between specific families, social classes or within the same family. This last point is reinforced several times in Genesis. So where did she come from? It really does not matter because she did not come from the people of God! This is an important point to consider that will resurface again and again in the book of Genesis.

Now this is where the story gets really interesting and we start to make comparisons with Genesis 6. So Cain and Abel can be considered "sons of God". They become recipients of Gods "inheritance" in the land just like any good Israelite father would give to his sons. When Cain becomes angry because he does not receive the first-born blessing he is described as having "fallen", or his countenance is "fallen". In Hebrew this word is naphal which is the root word for nephilim, referring to the "fallen ones" which appears in Genesis 6. Could this be a reference to Cain? I believe that it is and here is why:

1. Cain and Abel are designated as sons of God by the fact that they come before God to receive His blessing (thier inheritance rights as sons). This is further attested to by the fact that Cain is driven from the land (because of the curse) as one who is "cut-off" from his people. A concept an ancient Israelite would understand very well.
2. As I have already described, Cain, in Genesis 4, is described as "naphal" (fallen) and Genesis 6 mentions the "Nepilim" (fallen ones) which is sometimes incorrectly translated as giants. I believe it better describes Cain and his progeny
3. Marriage in ancient Israel carried all kinds of familial, cultural and divine restrictions so someone just going out and finding a wife from among a strange people would have been considered unacceptable. Cain takes a wife from an unknown people (the daughters of men), his sons and grandsons also take wives from an unknown people.
4. Mighty men, men of renown (Genesis 6) were men who were well known for something. Usually this was fighting and warfare but here it fits nicely as a description of the progeny of Cain who are described in Genesis 4 as being renown for establishing or mastering specific trades.
5. Lamech (Genesis 4) declares to his two wives (polygamy) that he was injured by another man whom he then killed (murdered), showing his disregard for justice by repaying an injury with death (Draconian to say the least). He then boasts that Gods vengeance is not as great as the vengeance he will bring for minor injuries he incurs at the hands of another. He makes himself out to be "like" a god. Lamech represented the fifth generation from Cain, his sons the sixth. The line of Cain, rather than repent and turn to the Lord, become even more violent and unjust. This last point, in my opinion, corresponds to the wickedness of man in Genesis 6 that is ultimately condemned by God.

There are a number of reasons why I reject that these "sons of God" are angels and that the nephilim are "giants" (which is one possible translation that some second temple Jews maintained) but I wont discuss the negative points here. I am suggesting it is the line of Cain that eventually brings about the destruction of the earth by God (the great flood). One of the chosen, a son of God, who rebelled and went his own way, drawing the curse of God, teaching his children to do the same and eventually drawing the condemnation of God. Could this be something similar to what we see in the story of Noah, Ham and Canaan? The curse being the result of Adams (Hams) own sin in the garden (tent of his father). How would a story like this relate to an ancient Israelite? It would have been a stark reminder that disregard for the Mosaic Law will have disastrous consequences that will carry for generations. God punishes sin, especially among those who should know better and that the consequences of sin affect many more than just the offenders. Those to whom He has a special regard it can be worse. It would certainly help explain (to a captive Israelite):

• the capture and deportation of the Northern tribes of Israel by Assyria
• the destruction and deportation of the Southern kingdom of Judah by the Babylonians

So Cain becomes a wanderer in the earth and then establishes a city where he presumably makes a permanent home (doesnt look too much like wandering to me) but I believe this is meant to portray an irony. By naming the city after his son he is almost certainly establishing a dynastic kingship that continues through Lamech. Why is this important? Because the city in some ways is representative of those who have been cut-off from the earth (those who do not produce), a gathering of the cursed (like Cain). The landless poor, the disinherited, criminals and the wealthy ruling class (thier palaces, temples, and extravagant houses) who buy the loyalty of city dwellers with the taxes and tribute they extort from those who work the land, from producers. The city is a black hole for commodities and many times the souls of men (as slaves to support a growing ancient urban economy). It is always consuming and never producing. Wealth goes in and does not come out. This city of the damned represents a gathering of those who oppose God and disregard His commands, who go their own way and follow the will of another (a human King). The city of the damned contrasts to the way Israel thought about the land. The land, according to the Hebrew scriptures, belonged to God, not to men, and was given by God not taken or dispersed by men. In truth, God alone owned the land and He alone retained eternal sovereign power over who lived on it. Because of this view, Israelite society maintained strict land laws. Land could not be bought or sold except under special circumstances. Tracts of land were gifted to each of the twelve tribes (children of Israel/Jacob) and then subdivided to the families of each tribe. These tracts of land were to be kept within the family that owned them. The land could be rented and even temporarily sold in especially hard times but at the year of jubilee the land would automatically revert back to the family to which it was given (by God). This was a tremendous protection against single wealthy families taking advantage of hard times for poorer families and taking lands to enlarge their own holdings and further enrich themselves. It also protected inheritance patterns and government interference with familial holdings.

Israel was indeed unlike the nations around them. I think we can easily understand this dichotomy today. I dont know about other countries, but in America, the small rural farming and ranching communities are typically known for low crime. Everybody know everybody. You dont lock your doors at night and can even leave the keys to your car IN THE CAR. It is NOT that way in the urban areas. Large cities can be dangerous places to live. You ALWAYS lock your door and wouldnt even dream of leaving your keys in the car unless you wanted it to get stolen. You only know a handful of people in a city of hundreds of thousands (or millions). All those people there around you and when you get into trouble, no one to help. Thank God for cell phones and the ability to wire transfer money! And in order to retain power (buying support), politicians grant some of the most worthless men the ability to do nothing and enjoy the fruits of another mans labor. Times (perhaps I should say PEOPLE) sure havent changed much in all these years.

Genesis 2 3 4 Light and Dark

This topic is actually one of the reasons I dont believe that Genesis 1 and 2 were written by the same person. The treatment of various subjects, like light and dark, are as different as night and day. Genesis 1 treats darkness as a profane state of nature. By profane I mean common, or not set apart for special use by God. Darkness is not personified and does not antagonize the will of God. It is separated from light and is intended to be seen literally, day (the time of light) and night (the time of darkness), each governed by their respective heavenly body. The light is called "good" and the darkness receives no comment, it is ignored. Genesis 2, however, presents light and darkness quite differently. In Genesis 2, 3 and 4 darkness implies what is hidden, light is revelation (revealing) or plain to see, both intentional actions carried out by specific individuals (you will see what I mean). It is clearly, in my opinion, being drawn from Genesis 1 as an allegory of the subject and even a thematic dichotomy. Gods commands/judgment (spoken words) represents the light and Adam the sun (to govern the day). He is the image of God, proving that he is a son of God by doing (and obeying) the things God does (and says concerning him) in Genesis 1. Those actions specifically are:

1. Separating = setting apart
2. Naming = recognizing and declaring purpose
3. judging = deciding whether or not a specific goal is being achieved

and the words spoken about them:

1. governorship of the earth and of the living things that are on it
2. confidence of Gods ability to provide for all living things (because he cares for them all)
3. respect for the living things that God has created

In Genesis 1 separating and naming (another thematic dichotomy found in the story) demonstrates Gods wisdom with respect to establishing order and purpose in the cosmos. Separation indicates order and the name indicates a things purpose. It is done and stated plainly, no hidden agenda. In Genesis 2, the man must separate and name the animals (same concept demonstrated in the man). In Genesis 1, God periodically judges His own work indicated by God "seeing" that what He has done is "good". In Genesis 2, the man, apparently, has some reservation (or dissatisfaction) about his own work (a judgment) and God seeks for him a "helper", the mans judgment is right on. When God presents (implying the man "sees" her) the woman to the man he makes a declaration about her that is nothing less than a judgment of "good". The man is showing the qualities that makes him "like" God.

The darkness is represented by the serpent who presents a whole host of theological (and scientific) problems. Probably the greatest theological question anyone could ask is simply "why?" Why does the serpent deceive the woman and ensnare the man? We have made some fine guesses throughout Christian history, but, surprisingly the text does not say. His motive is hidden (shrouded in darkness) and is never revealed (why? because it is hidden in the darkness, something we are meant to notice). Serpents were known throughout the ancient world for their ability to live both below ground and above ground, producing the notion that they were able to pass between the world of the living and the world of the dead, the underworld (a dark and dreary place). Many cultures worshiped serpents because they were thought to be magic creatures (of prophesy and healing), renewing themselves by shedding their skin (removing the old dead self and being reborn to new life) and living forever. The Hebrews, as far as we know, did not hold such a high place for snakes. Snakes are seen in the Jewish literature as deceptive and dangerous, hiding along the path to strike unwitting travelers. This ability to stay hidden in bushes, under rocks or even camouflaged along the ground until they move to strike is considered a form of darkness (the ability to remain unnoticed). The serpent, in Genesis 3, appears suddenly (to the woman), striking quickly (deceiving her), never revealing his intentions. What is the outcome of his actions? Gods judgment of death on the man and woman, the result of disregarding the command. Did the serpent know this would happen? I believe that he did and that he intended that outcome. In this way, the serpent acts as an anti-image or anti-type. Just as God reveals and separates for the purpose of fulfilling his good will and Adam imitates God in Genesis 2, the serpent (in Genesis 3) also separates for the purpose of his own will, which is not revealed. He separates the woman from the man (Adams dilemma) then the man from God (spiritual death). What God does in plain sight, the serpent does in hiding. Perhaps as an anti-type the serpent is trying to be "like" god but in a way that is different from the man. The man is imitating the character of God. The serpent, on the other hand, is trying to control the situation, bending it to his own will, giving him a sense of power over Gods creation and even over Gods will, thus imitating the power and authority of God apart from the character of God, trying to make himself equal with God or perhaps above God in power. Being "like" God (or "like" a god) then would become a third thematic dichotomy.

The deception of the serpent is a type of darkness, or blindness. The inability to see the truth so you continue to believe what is not truth. He blinds the woman with deception (showing her that she can touch the tree and not die, something that was already true) undermining her fear of the command of God and encourages her to eat. He becomes a murderer by using Gods own judgment (against Him so to speak) to bring death to the woman and thwart Gods will for the man. And because it was done indirectly the serpent thinks he can avoid culpability, and can simply say to God, "you made the rules and I am not the one who broke them." He is not directly responsibility because the action was done by someone else. He shrouds himself in a situational darkness, remaining hidden from the main confrontation between offender and offended, like a puppet-master behind the scene pulling the strings of his puppets. This type of involvement usually makes situations more complex and harder to judge because the one actually responsible is not guilty of breaking the law as it is stated. As the representative of light, Adam failed to judge and dispel the darkness that had entered his kingdom. He did not reveal the serpent for what it was and expel it from the garden and darkness overtook his kingdom. As a form of irony, the writer says that their eyes were "opened" (as though from darkness). But this is the result of having eaten the fruit which God commanded them NOT to eat, it is not a punishment.While before they did not know they were naked, now they do. While before they did not feel compelled to do something about being naked, now they do. They see something about themselves that unnerves them and they assert their own will to fix it effectively separating them from the will of God, who formed them nude in the first place. By asserting their own will they are try to be "like" God in a way that was not intended. They are imitating the serpent in being "like" God and elevating their own will above the will of God.

Finally, God enters the story. I think it is important to lay some ground-work here regarding the judgment of God. His judgment is much more than a time of punishment. It can be that. But I think the best way to describe Gods judgment is as a time of honest assessment. Sort of like a company who has not done so well in the recent past. There comes a point when you have to stop and look honestly at the way things are going, figure out how you can cut, what processes need to change and plan a better strategy for the future, then act. It is like light shining upon a dark situation, revealing not only what has happened but how it will affect things from here on out and what we need to do to fix it. Gods judgment is ALWAYS good and just and His first intention is ALWAYS reconciling what can be reconciled and preserving the direction He thinks is "good". Of course the judgments of God in Genesis 1 were not in response to poor performance, they were simply periodic inspections at the end of a work cycle. The time of judgment for the man and woman has come. The change that has happened to them has deeply affected how they see God and His judgment. Now they fear the presence of God not just the consequences of disregarding His command. First they both try and hide their nakedness (shrouding their nudity from one another?), then the man tries to hide from the presence of God (shrouding himself in darkness). Because the man is responsible for upholding the command and tending the garden, God begins interrogation with him. The man points to the woman and the woman points to the serpent so God begins doling out judgment with the serpent, the root of the problem.

I believe this story is intended for Israel (perhaps the story of Israel) to demonstrate the effectiveness and protective benefit of keeping the commands of God. How darkness enters the land through deception and confusion and disruption in Israels relationship with God occurs by the assertion of any will other than Gods. While judgment is certain to come periodically, it does not have to be bad news. Israel must maintain its rightful place as governor of the earth by proper judgment (according to the will of God) and decisive action. For those who have been grafted in, this presents an incredible warning to maintain the course of faith in Gods provision.

Ancient Mediterranean Cosmos

Generic Model

The myth of the creation of the cosmos in the ancient Mediterranean world shared many similarities from one culture to the next. As a matter of figuring out how the early Hebrews may have seen their own cosmos (universe), I would like to compare several myths from other civilizations. There are some important similarities and differences. These need to be discussed, more appropriately within the context of the ancient world, which is difficult because of the lack of written documents from ancient sources fully explaining beliefs in the kind of detail we prefer today. This is no small problem either. We will have to infer/guess way more than the western mind is comfortable with but I think we can at least get a glimpes. 

• The Meta-Divine: The cosmos begins as a great nothing-ness, a vast void or watery mass. The waters were mixed, sweet (fresh) and salty, and everything was one, with no distinction or purpose (hostile to life). This is important because it shows a cosmos without the order of wisdom and law. To the ancients, nature was governed by law and since natural forces were the physical manifestations of the gods the gods were also subject to this divine law/wisdom. This is referred to as the meta-divine realm (J Wellhausen), that is, a realm higher than the gods to which they are subject or bound. This realm is what grounds the concept of magic, which is the ability to chant or cast spells that manipulate the gods or bend their wills to the will of the magician.
• Divinity: The gods were natural forces that endured the ages, lasting from generation to generation. They were immortal (undying) but were NOT considered all knowing, all powerful, omnipresent, etc... The gods were limited to their particular realm of habitation such as wind, earth, water, the underworld, the sky, and so on. The gods could even have territories (human geo-political boundaries, or natural boundaries such as marshes, rivers or mountains) where they were more likely to be present. There they would have cult centers where temples would house the image (idol) of the god (his/her physical likeness).
• Manifestation: The gods were themselves spiritual but manifested in the physical world as some enduring physical presence (earth, sky, wind, water, etc...). While humans could experience the physical manifestations of the gods they would not be able to withstand a spiritual manifestation because the imperfect (earthly) does not endure the perfect (spiritual). For this reason, idols were the venue through which mankind communicated and adored the gods, who used the idols as places of rest, where they could present themselves to humanity for proper worship and adoration.
• Politics: Many times the creation or ordering of the cosmos is also geo-political, beginning in the region where the myth occurs or is written. The Babylonian creation myth centers on Babylon (the rise of Marduk), the Egyptian creation myths are centered in Egypt (rise of Osiris and Horus), with surrounding lands seen as habitations of outsiders (those who are NOT chosen by the creator god), dark threats of chaotic destruction that should be overcome and subdued.
• Separation: Order begins with the separation of the primordial gods (most basic elements of the natural world), one from another, according to a divine wisdom or law. Further separation of the elements of nature are described as births from the sexual union of the primordial gods, thus a complex system is often used to describe the generations of the gods. 
• Darkness and Light: Darkness is always a major element of the cosmos, especially BEFORE the introduction of light. Light is often associated with justice and with revealing what is hidden so it can be judged.
• Humanity: Many times human beings are an after-thought of the gods, made to serve the gods or attend the work of the gods (like ploughing the earth, digging canals and raising food). Humans play an important role in feeding the gods with sacrifices, or placating their wrath with spilling blood and taking life (punishment poured out on an innocent victim). Human worship was necessary for the gods and was strictly regulated by law. It was less important for humans to be sincere about their worship and far more important that they simply participate. Without proper worship (perfectly performed ritual) favor could quickly turn to punishing anger.
• The Primordial gods: All seem to agree that the major distinctions to be made are darkness, light, sky (including a dome that covers the land), solid earth and water.
• Will: The gods each have wills of their own, not only with respect to their own world but also to the world of men (as general rulers and over-seers). And these varied wills sometimes conflict with one another, explaining the sometimes disastrous events that occur in nature, such as flooding the earth with water, and times of drought, disease and fire. These conflicts could also manifest in human tribal warfare. One god defeating another was a common explanation for the defeats of armies on the battlefield. This conflict makes it clear that for order to prevail a single will must dominate over the others, to bring stability and harmony. Thus is the idea of divine kingship, one ruler over all, one will asserted above the others.
• The Cosmic Struggle: There is a common theme of struggle. The god or gods must struggle against an equally or sometimes more powerful god of darkness, chaos and destruction. This in some way proves the legitimate reign of the supreme god whose intentions are revealed by his actions against the destructive power. He is benevolent (to some degree) and desirous for life to continue and thrive under his leadership.
• Times and Seasons: The seasons were regulated by the appearances of specific stars or constellations, making special times marked on every calendar events that were mandated and maintained by the gods or heavenly beings looking down on the earth from their places in the heavens. These times were not just seasons, but any holidays or times of sacrifice as well. In some ways, many cultures celebrated the seasons as eternal reminders (holidays) of some event passed down and narrated in myth from generation to generation. The death of a life giving god bringing the cold and barren winter and his resurrection in the spring bringing new life.
• Kingship: human kingship is handed down from the gods and is meant to be an immitation of the heavenly king (of the gods). His deeds should be great and his power and position unquestionable (unless you were Greek). He should rule with wisdom and a strong hand.

Greek



The Greek Cosmos (centered in the hilly, rocky and sometimes mountainous terrain of Greece) taken mostly from Hesiods Theogony (his version not likely the ONLY version), begins with a gaping/yawning void of dark nothingness (Khaos) from which comes deep darkness, night and day. Then the earth (Gaia) and sky (Ouranos) who by copulating time and again (the power of the primordial god Eros) produce mountains, seas, rivers, storms and forests. Each generation building upon the last. The younger generations of gods making their homes on the physically manifested bodies of their elders. A host of sky-gods fill the sky (Ouranos), earth gods fill the earth (Gaia) and water gods fill the waters (Okeanos). For example, Hades is the god who inhabits the underworld (the underworld is literally the god known as Tartarus), Poseidon is the god that inhabits the sea (the god Okeanos) and Zeus is the god that inhabits the sky (the god Ouranos). It is as though the earlier primordial gods form a structure on which the newer gods live and thrive, and on which living creatures (like humans) live and thrive. Thus these older gods eventually take a quiet background position, being replaced by newer and more aggressive gods that exhibit very active natural forces. Sexual domination and reproduction is an important part of the Greek mythology. As with the Babylonian cosmos, the sky-god is male and the earth-goddess female, so that the earth is ruled by the sky and rain, like sperm, falls on the earth to make it fertile. It was the god of the sky (Ouranos) then that retained the original power, all else being below his gaze and the earth being dominated by his every sexual whim (likened to rape), thus spawning not only the later generations of the gods but also the conflict between father and children, culminating in his castration (loss of creative power and domination) and his separation from the earth and withdrawal from active participation in creation. These rebellious children are known as the Titans (led by Kronos) who rule until they are challenged by the Olympians (led by Zeus). Kronos had taken to swallowing his own children alive to avoid a prophesy that one of them would over-throw him just as he had over-thrown his own father Ouranos. Zeus was hidden away and raised by nymphs until he was strong enough to mount a rebellion against Kronos. He fed Kronos a potion that forced him to vomit out the other children and they, together defeat the Titans and rule from Mt Olympus, halfway between the earth and sky. A similar prophesy is made concerning Zeus and his child born from Metis (wisdom). So Zeus swallows Metis, who births a child inside of Zeus. This child is then birthed by Zeus from his head. Interestingly, what was supposed to be a male, turned out being a female, Athena, born fully grown and clad in shiny armor, ready for war. Since she remains perpetually a virgin (no man may claim domination over her) she is always in submission to her fathers house, thus allowing Zeus to breathe a huge sigh of relief.

Much later, Ovid, a Roman Latin poet, recounts some versions of the Greek myths, including the creation of the cosmos, though not without some creativity of his own for a Roman audience educated in the Greek style. Honestly, I rather prefer Ovid to Homer simply because the Metamorphoses has so much that is familiar to me as a Christian. I wont be including it here however because it is far too late to have anything significant to add to the present discussion.

Egyptian



The Egyptian Cosmos is probably one of the oldest and brings characteristics that are somewhat different from the others. The sky (Nut) is female rather than male and the earth (Geb) male rather than female, all overseen by the sun-god (Atum-Ra) who makes his circuit through the world of the living AND the dead (Duat = the underworld) keeping order by his word (wisdom or Maat) and the power of his light (ability to make all things known, to see all, judge all, keep order and maintain justice). Sexuality also plays a less significant role (creative ability still sexual in nature but controlled by the will and spoken word) in the domination of the Egyptian cosmos than it does the Greek cosmos. For the Egyptians it was this concept of the meta-divine (introduced earlier) that provided the power to dominate one another, which elevated the Egyptian concept of wisdom and speech. The gods cast spells to manipulate their world and form and order the cosmos. The struggle between good and evil is more pronounced, like the Babylonian myth, in the Egyptian cosmic myth than the Greek myth. Light, wisdom and fertility are constantly threatened by darkness, purposelessness and infertility, against which the gods (and mankind) must struggle. Outside nations, the sea and the desert were such places of encroaching evil upon the land of the fertile Nile Valley. Egyptian priests took great care to cast daily spells so that the wisdom and order of the gods was preserved, the sun would rise (in rebirth), enemies would be defeated and the Nile would provide the land with life sustaining silt. Thus for Egyptians the power of the spoken/written word is extremely important to every aspect of life.

There are several creation myths scattered along the Nile Valley, that indicate the creative ability of the god worshiped in that particular city and dominant temple complex. Each story is unique to its own region and is sensitive to the political ideologies of the priests and members of the upper class ruling party who come from that region. Here are three (many more most certainly existed):

• Memphite Theology: Centered in the city of Memphis, discovered and translated mainly from the Shabaka Stone. When the creator-god, Ptah, first conceives (thinks in his heart) the other primordial gods he masturbates into his mouth. The semen represents fertility and life and the mouth represents the authority of the spoken word of the god. He then speaks or spits the other gods into existence and gives them living souls. 
• Heiliopolitan Theology: Centered in the city of Heliopolis found written on tomb walls or walls inside the pyramids (known as the Pyramid Texts) or on coffins (known as Coffin Texts). Before any order existed and the world was darkness and water, Atum, the complete and one god, rises out of the chaotic primordial waters. From his body he creates the nine initial gods (Ennead) of the cosmos; Shu, Nut, Tefnut, Geb, Osiris, Isis, Set and Nephthys, with himself as their father and rightful ruler. The sun is a form of Atum, known as Ra-Atum and keeps the cycle of the natural world moving.
• Hermopolitan Theology: Centered in the city of Hermopolis, also found written on tomb walls and coffins. The Ogdoag (group of 8 gods, from four male(m)/female(f) pairs, who were the primordial creation) were symbolized as frogs (gods) and snakes (goddesses):
  1.       Nun(m)/Naunet(f) = Watery Abyss (primeval waters of chaos)
  2.       Amun(m)/Amaunet(f) = Hiddenness (invisibility)
  3.       Huh(m)/Hauhet(f) = Formlessness (eternity)
  4.       Kuk(m)/Kauket(f) = Darkness
  The mingling of the Ogdoad (four pairs of deities) produced first the mound (land of Egypt) that rose out of the chaotic primordial waters. From this mound rose the creator god, Ra (the sun), the first light dawning on Egypt. A later myth (from Hermopolis: Hermes was considered to be the Greek equivalent to Thoth) recounted how an ibis bird or a goose lays a great egg, which is Thoth the moon, god of wisdom. This egg (Thoth) gives birth to Amun (inside the egg) who would create the cosmos, thus establishing Thoth as the father of the creator.

The more famous stories of Egypt are also geopolitical in nature. Describing Egypt in ancient times, before the rise of a single dynastic monarchy and then recounts the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt through war. Osiris, a son of Geb and Nut, is the historical king of Egypt and of the gods, passed down to him from the creator god. Set, god if disorder and chaos, murders Orisis and cuts him into pieces then scatters his body over all of Egypt, and assumes the throne for himself. Mournful Isis, with the help of Nephthys, wife of Set, searches out her husbands body and puts the pieces together enough to have a sexual union that produces an heir to the throne, Horus. Isis and Anubis prepare the body of Osiris so that death has as little effect on him as possible and he descends into the underworld to reign as king and judge of those who die. Horus then challenges Set and the gods intervene before Horus kills Set. Because Set took the throne by murder rather than by right they give it to Horus. Human kings in Egypt are said to be the servants of Horus as long as they live and the servants of Osiris, king of the underworld, in death.

As with most creation myths in the ancient world, the gods manifested themselves as the actual natural phenomenon. The solid ground was Geb. To stand on the earth was to stand on Geb. When you looked into the heavens you saw Nut, her body held above the earth by Shu, whom you could feel in those warm summer breezes. The spiritual and the natural worlds were intimately linked. To offend the gods meant a disunity with the very world in which you lived. Religious performance was VERY important to the ancient peoples of the Mediterranean. 

Babylonian



The Babylonian Cosmos has a long history of myths spanning back to the Akkadians and Sumerians. Since the Bible makes Babylon Abrahams origin I will stick mainly to the Enuma Elish, the Babylonian version of creation, written on seven tablets (a number associated with creation).

Tablet 1: In the beginning there was only the salt (sea) water (the dragon goddess Tiamat) and the sweet (fresh) water (the god Apsu) mixed together in confusion. They birthed a host of lesser gods who were far too noisy and kept disturbing Apsu while he was trying to rest. Apsu could not get rest. He decided that he would destroy the gods. Tiamat disagreed but Apsu had made up his mind so she submitted. A younger god, Ea, the very clever god of the rivers and streams cast a spell on Apsu, removed his crown and subdued him in the deep part of the earth, building his own throne upon Apsu. Tiamat, furious at the rebellion of the younger gods decided Apsu was right and birthed an army of giant serpents and horrible sea creatures to hunt down the unruly gods and destroy them. She gave the stolen Tablets of Destiny (which belonged/were fated to Anu, the sun god) to the god Kingu and made him commander of her army.  Ea, upon hearing of Tiamats vengeful plot against the gods, sends Anu to negotiate with Tiamat but she refuses.

Tablet 2: Ea counsels with his father, Anshar. They decide on diplomacy first. Perhaps Tiamat will relent and have mercy on her children (as a mother). Ea goes to Tiamat but she refuses him and Ea returns to his father. Ea and Anshar consult together and create Marduk, a very powerful god who has the wisdom of Ea and the mighty power of Anshar. He is proclaimed the avenger of the gods and it is decided that he should go to war with Tiamat. Marduk announces that he must be made the king of the gods, by the proper declaration of the other gods.

Tablet 3: The situation is recounted in the assembly of the gods. The times are desperate and they look utterly hopeless and dark. Kingu has been given supreme authority over the gods by Tiamat to order the cosmos (by the tablets of destiny that belonged to Anu). His word is now law and he leads Tiamats army. All are afraid of Tiamat and her new husband and general, Kingu. The gods give their assent to Marduk.

Tablet 4: Marduk is given the legitimate power of the creative word by declaration of the gods who decide fate. He is given the power to order the universe (the power of Anu) apart from the tablets. He then demonstrates his new power by commanding a garment to disappear, which it does, then commanding it to reappear, which it does. The gods rejoice and Marduk is declared King of the gods. Marduk arms himself with lightning and wind, a club, a bow and arrows, a spear, and a great net. He mounted his chariot, which was a terrible storm. As he rode forward, Kingu shrank back in fear but Tiamat, enraged by the taunting of Marduk, rushed forward to battle the great king that had been lifted to greatness by the other gods. Marduk caught her in his net, filled her with his wind so that she swelled and then burst her open with his spear and peirced her heart, killing her. She was thrown down from the hieght. Her army scattered. Marduk caught them in his net and enslaved and severely punished them for their part in the evil plan of Tiamat. He smashed Tiamats skull, he scattered her blood to the four winds. He cut her body in two peices, stationing one part as the upper waters and the other part as the lower waters. He created the heavens and the earth and gave each god his portion to inhabit.

Tablet 5: He set the stars and planets in the heavens and established the times and seasons and stations of the other gods, the sun, moon and stars, light and day, earth and sky. He commanded the moon god to rule the night and determine the days of the month and the other gods of the sky to determine seasons and special days of the year. The gods apparently complain about their work and that they have no houses/temples in which to rest and dine.

Tablet 6: Marduk decides to punish the complaining gods but instead shows them mercy. He commands that humans be made, the blood drawn from a god the bones fashioned from the earth, and that they do the work of the gods and build glorious houses and images for them in which they might find rest. The whole creation rejoiced at the power and wisdom of Marduk.

Tablet 7: The praise of Marduk, a review of his works and a declaration of his provision for the gods. He is to be worshiped, the gods bow and declare him king of the gods.

Canaanite

The Canaanite Cosmic Myth is similar to the Babylonian cosmic myth (many of the gods are the same and even have similar names and functions) in many respects and is surprisingly similar to the Israelite cosmic myth. This should not be surprising because the Canaanites were so close, in terms of geography, to the Babylonians and many of the other cultures that inhabited the Mesopotamian and fertile crescent region, such as the Assyrians and Persians. I dont think there is as much known about the Canaanite mythology as we would like but some things are clear because of the lack of written texts explaining it. This particular religion, because of its proximity to and influence on the people of Israel, receives the most attention and condemnation in the Old Testament. Needless to say it was a popular religion in Israel. El seems to be the all wise father of the gods who lives in his palace on the Mountain where a spring splits into the great rivers of the earth. Together with his wife Asherah, mother of the gods, they produce seventy "sons of El", literally translated as "sons of god". I have not seen any written text explaining the origins of the Canaanite cosmos. From a smattering of written records we can see a few things that leave us to guess the rest. The cosmos seems to be the result of the sexual exploits of El, with a number of lovers, among them are mentioned the young and attractive female goddesses of evening and morning. There are a number of other stories that have been found and shed some light on the characters themselves.

The following story is not a creation story but does illustrate the order the creation has taken from the still unknown Canaanite cosmic myth. Yam, son of El, is the destructive sea god who keeps his giant sea serpent, Leviathan/Lotan, always at the ready to destroy mankind and wage war against the other gods. His eye is on the total domination of the earth and sky. At times, even El seems to fear Yam. Dagon is a god of grain, harvest and the fertile rains. The son of Dagon is Baal, god of the storm and lightning, a god of war, whose name translates simply as "Lord". Mot, son of El, is the wide mouthed god of death, of which life always goes in and never comes out, who is ever-hungry to eat the living. Yam demands that El turn over Asherah to be his wife and Baal so he can be destroyed. Yam demands to be king of the gods. El, in fear of Yams great power, inclines to hand over Baal and Asherah and declare Yam king of the gods. But Baal is enraged by the arrogance of Yam and challenges him to combat. During the first battle, Yam proves to be too powerful to defeat easily so Baal employs the blacksmith, Kothar-Wa-Khasis, of the gods to make him a weapon that can defeat Yam. Kothar responds by making two battle clubs and giving them magic names that gives them the winning edge. Baal smashes the head of Yam and defeats the dark sea god, ensuring his reign as king of the gods on Mount Zaphon. Mot does not rejoice at the victory of Baal and decides he will not bow to the king of the gods. To show his own great power Mot swallows Baal and Baal dies. El, in an attempt to replace Baal, allows others to sit on Baals throne but none are able to mount the throne as well as Baal. Anat, sister of Baal, enters the underworld where she demands that Mot restore Baal. When he refuses she attacks, kills and mutilates Mot (scattering his peices throughout the land). Baal returns to the world of the living and assumes his throne. Mot miraculously resurrects and challenges Baal again but El and the other gods step in and affirm Baals rightful place upon the throne. Mot backs down ending the feud between Baal and Mot. Baal reigns supreme.





Israelite

The Israelite Cosmos begins with the assumption that there is God and the cosmos (already present). The cosmos is only water and darkness at this point. The origin of the primordial elements of the cosmos is not discussed just as it is not discussed in any other cosmic myth, they are just assumed to have been already present. Israelite creation is divided into 7 days and creates an interactive relationship between the utterances of God and the active presence of the spirit of God.

 

Day 1: Light is created and separated from the darkness. Evening (coming of night) followed by morning (coming of day) is the first day of the creation establishing the cycles of time and the basic unit of the calendar. The Israelites reckoned a single day from evening to evening, which is what is represented here, so when the sun had set a new day had begun.

 

Day 2: Primordial water is separated, the upper waters from the lower waters with an expanse (of air/wind) between them and a dome to hold back the upper waters. The unification of these two waters plays a central role in the flood of Noah.

 

Day 3: Land is separted from water and is made fertile for the growth of plants. An agrarian dependence is being reinforced with the establishment of the calendar, the rain cycle and irrigation by rivers and canals, and the fertility of the land. God is the provider!

 

Day 4: Now, on day four, we return to the light and darkness separated on the first day as God creates the sun, moon and stars to inhabit these places. The sun is to rule (have authority over) the day, the moon is to rule the night and they are all set in order by God so that they usher in special times and seasons. 

 

Day 5: We return to the upper and lower waters and the firmament from the second day. God creates birds and fish to inhabit these places and tells them to multiply. 

 

Day 6: Lastly we are returned on the sixth day to the land that was separated from the water on the third day. God creates animals and mankind to inhabit the earth, all are commanded to multiply. Mankind (a living human being) is special among the animals because they are called "image", the same word used to denote an idol (or image of the god) in other cultures. This male and female are given a special authority over the other animals and over the kingdom of God on the earth.

 

Day 7: God has completed the work of creation and stops (because He is finished, He has provided) to survey (judge) and enjoy what has been done (seventh day rest). This last day of rest is known as the Sabbath.

 

 

The Israelite Cosmic Myth employs a number of attributes that bare remarkable similarity to each of the four previous cosmic creation myths. That being said, it is also strikingly different in very profound ways (I believe that these differences reveal one of the main purposes of the Biblical account of creation). One of the obvious pusposes behind the first chapter of Genesis is to disagree with other texts and offer an alternative perspective, introducing very different theological ideas. 

 

Greek: Any similarities with the Greek mythos is not because of any influence the Greeks had on Mesopotamian religion but I believe it is the other way around. The Greeks seem to have imported the religions of other people and integrated them into their own. By including the Greek myth it helps us see

 

Egyptian: I believe that the Egyptian religion is the oldest, in terms of integration with established civilization and centralized government which makes it important to the development of religion in the region. Genesis agrees with the importance and authority of the spoken divine word and the identification of a single creator god from whom all else is birthed. Genesis does not necessarily share as many overt similarities with Egyptian religion as it does with other religions but the Pentateuch seems to share quite a bit. For example, the structure of the Israelite camp as described in the Pentateuch is identical to an Egyptian military camp.

 

Babylonian: Similarities with the Babylonian mythos are pretty easy to see. Seven days correspond to seven tablets. Beginning in water and darkness on tablet one introducing the theme of finding divine "rest" which only becomes a reality by tablet seven, similar to the idea of Sabbath rest. Creation of the sun, moon and stars on tablet four and the creation of man on tablet six correspond to the fourth and sixth days of the Genesis 1 text.

 

Canaanite: The Canaanites were close neighbors of the Israelites, both speaking a similar Semitic language that shared most words in common. The head of the Canaanite pantheon was El, a word that refers to The God, represented in physical likeness by the bull (the image worshiped in northern Israel)! Similarly the Israelites used this word to refer to their own God, Yahweh. As there were two mountains in the Canaanite mythos (Mountain of El and Mt Zaphon of Baal), so there are two mountains in the Israelite story (Mt Sinai and Mt Zion, Mt Zion and Gerizim or even Mt Gerizim and Mt Ebal). The Hebrew bible refers to many mythical characters well known in Canaanite communities. Such as El, Baal (Lord), Yam (the word for sea), Asherah, Leviathan and Lotan.

 

While the Hebrew cosmic myth is NOT a scientific revolution, maintaining instead that the earth is a flat disc surrounded by water and covered by a solid dome, it IS a revolution in terms of theology. The kind of monotheism expressed in the Hebrew scriptures is unique and should not be confused with the henotheism of other cultures, though ancient Israelites themselves were more henotheist (or just outright polytheists), than monotheist. The Israelite religion is MONOtheist but this strict monotheism may not have asserted itself in the way that we know it today until the Babylonian captivity when Judaism itself underwent many changes and the texts of their scripture extensive revision.

• The meta-divine: Genesis, while agreeing with the Egyptian myth that the spoken word of the divine has creative power, it is not treated as any type of magic that draws its power from a higher law. The source of all law and authority rests solely in the heart of the one creator.
• Divinity: God is not represented in power by any created natural phenomenon other than the ability to judge wisely and act accordingly. God is understood to stand apart from the created cosmos so that His destiny is not tied to the destiny of any other. He is by Himself something that the creation is not. He is uncreated, all wise, all powerful and all judging.
• Manifestation: God does not manifest Himself in any natural force or in any idol/image made with hands (considered idolatry) though He did choose to be represented by another kind of image. That image is a living man, who is able to see and hear and speak and move. That man alone received the breathe of God (spirit) which enables him to act on behalf of God.
• Politics: While declares that the whole world is His, He chooses to draw a distinction in the geo-political setting by choosing the nation of Israel as the people among whom He would manifest His presence. According to southern Judah, the temple in Jerusalem on Mount Zion was that place among his people. According to northern Israel it was the temple on Mount Gerizim (Samaritan Temple).
• Humanity: Humans are not an after-thought though they are meant to work by tilling the earth, agreeing with that particular aspect of the Babylonian version of the cosmic creation. Humans are taken and formed by the one creator and called His image. They do what He does (separating and naming) indicating that they are more than just animals, they exhibit the characteristics of the creator, making them more like His offspring, the sons of God. Mankind is the generations of the heavens and the earth rather than the created world itself.
• The primordial gods: There are not any specific primordial gods named by the creator. In fact, Genesis goes out of its way to avoid specific names (of gods), calling the sun "greater light" and the moon "lesser light", the stars as generic "lights", the land as a generic Hebrew term "eretz", and the waters as the waters above and the waters below. The only time any other deity seems to be referred to, it is not named as in, "Let Us make man in Our image". "Us" presumably refers to the heavens and the earth, as they had already been created and were present at the time of mans creation. To bolster this idea is the fact that Genesis intends to be an introduction to the generations (offspring) of the heavens and the earth.
• Will: There is only one will for the creation of the Hebrew cosmic myth. No other gods assert a will contrary to the creators will and there is no one who offers counsel to the creator. He acts alone. Seperate wills do not assert themselves until Genesis 3, but these are not divine wills.
• No Cosmic Struggle: Genesis is devoid of any struggle between God and an equally powerful dark lord or destroyer. Darkness is simply present (in Genesis 1) and it is dispelled at the creation of light by the command of the one creator. The chaotic sea is simply separated and given its boundaries without any protest. The only time a struggle (of cosmic proportions) MIGHT be indicated is in Genesis 3 and 4 when the man and woman submit to the serpent (a kind of behavioral darkness) and break the command of God.

The main idea to be conveyed is a strict monotheism that stands opposed to the other creation myths that were circulating at the time of the redaction(s) of the Pentateuch. It clearly incorporates elements of the other stories (not  and presents a very different picture of the creation and the absolute authority of a single God. This bolsters the commandments of the law, especially from a Judahite perspective. Genesis declares that the generations of the heavens are human beings and goes to great lengths to keep track of those generations throughout the text showing how they lead like a winding river to Israel.

How could we summarize what is being conveyed in Genesis 1?

• There is only one God, one will over ALL
• There is no active "evil" or destroyer that can be called a god or that opposes God in equal power. Darkness is simply the absence of light and disorder is simply the absence of order, both are easily overcome by the spoken word of God (revealing His will). God has no satan (accuser) with which He struggles.
• The cosmos is NOT God, nor is it a manifestation of God. The creation is wholy separate (in terms of "kind" or form of being/existence) from God. God stands apart from the universe, as an eternal being, and is not changed by the ever changing cosmos.
• ALL men and women were made in the likeness (image) of God and share both an eternal heavenly nature and a changable earthly nature. One is to rule the other just as the sun, moon and stars rule the times and seasons that come and go on the earth.

Hopefully I can add more to this discussion in coming weeks (or months). There is quite a bit more so I will try and update this specific entry with more information as I am able to add it.